Strategic Role of Information Systems Essay Example for Free

Strategic Role of Information Systems Essay Information Systems (IS) Information Systems is systems comprising of people, processes and technology to process data into meaningful and interpretable information. This system aims at assisting management and business operations in making business decisions and support business processes. There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, learning management systems, database management systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. Organizational Hierarchy The components of information systems can be broadly categorized into: Hardware, Software, Data, Procedures, People and feedback. Executive Information System Decision Support System Managment Information System Transaction Processing System Strategic Importance of Information Systems. In current world and business scenario right information, at the right time and with the right person can be the difference between survival and extinction of an organization. A strategic IS helps an organization gain a competitive advantage through its contribution to the strategic goals of an organization and its ability to significantly increase performance and productivity Information system can help strategize an organizations business model or enhance existing ones to give it an edge over its competitors. The different thoughts currently in the market for successful information systems management strategies are Descriptive Analytics This is based on historical data and represents patterns that occurred in the past. Predictive Analytics This is also based on historical data and related patterns but has the intelligence to predict related probable events that might occur in the near future. Prescriptive Analytics – This stream not only identifies patterns and probable near future events but also suggest probable course of actions based on past experiences. For Example – How much cash to keep in each ATM machine across the country and what currency notes to keep for each one of them so as to reduce idle cash and ensure customer satisfaction. Again organizations are employing predictive and prescriptive analytics to identify probable attrition cases and related remediation patterns. Probuddho Halder EMBA ITM 2015 Information courtesy Canadian Center of Science and Education Cases of Successful Information System. A few examples of effective and strategic use of information system are Ryanair Airlines – is an Irish low-cost airline headquartered in Swords, Dublin, Ireland, with its primary operational bases at Dublin and London Stansted Airports in 2013, Ryanair was both the largest European airline by scheduled passengers carried, and the busiest international airline by passenger numbers. In 1986, the two Ryan brothers announced that their young airline will take on giants like British Airways and Aer Lingus for the  first time on the route between Dublin and London. It significantly undercut those two airlines on price, bringing in people who had previously preferred rail or ferry tickets. The Rayan brothers had based their business model on a robust and reliable information system that showed that the big airlines were missing out on a successful customer base out of the middle and lower middle class commuters, who were least concerned about luxury and opulence and were more interested in pure transport. Pre-Shipment(Amazon) – Amazon the e-commerce giant is working on a model whereby they will base their product shipping strategy based on the browsing patterns of users. Predictive analytics will predict that a customer is most likely to buy a product and in a given time frame. Amazon will ship the product to the nearest warehouse even before the consumer has placed the order and ultimately when the order is placed deliver it within hours and not days. This clubbed with bulk order description can significantly reduce the logistics cost for amazon at same time increase the customer delight.

Implementing and Adopting Innovation: Case Study of Skype

Implementing and Adopting Innovation: Case Study of Skype The present assignment focuses on a real business situation which involves the implementation and adoption of innovation. The case study is comprised of four primary parts which explore the process of innovation development, the promoters of innovation, the internal and external reaction within business resources and the likely strategic implications and business model for further development which can be proposed. In this respect, the assignment explores Skype as an example of business organisation which adopts innovation on a continuous basis and the various strategic implications to which this behaviour is associated. Skype is an information communication technology (ICT) which is one of the most popular products used by different consumer segments in the process of communicating over the Internet. This platform provides users with the opportunity to communicate and interact via a low cost channel. The companys growth is promoted by the continuous internationalisation and globalisation of markets. Moreover, not only continuous internationalisation influences the development of Skype, but Skype itself can be seen as a promoter of globalisation removal of market and country boundaries. In this context, Skype has grown through the continuous application of incremental innovation. The company has been adopting innovative applications and targeting different customer segments through the products and services provided. However, the present assignment would not only explore these strategy approaches to competitiveness but primarily focuses on the organisational and structural innovation of Skype. The report particularly focuses on the acquisition of Skype by E-bay and the organisation implication this has. Pay Pal as another integrative part of this acquisition is also presented and discussed. Innovation Characteristics Innovation management and development has grown as one of the most popular fields within social sciences. It has attracted the interest of scholars for many years. For example, Schumpeter (1950) who is the pioneer within the discipline proposes that innovation is the development of a novel solution which alters past perceptions. Schumpeter (1950) characterised the process of innovation development with the concept of creative destruction explaining that innovation restructures the way past patterns are perceived through the implementation of novelty (Hospers, 2005). However, it is essential to be outlined that innovation is not only characterised by its novel characteristics but by the commercial importance which it has (Tidd et al., 2005). In other words, an innovative solution is both new and applicable to the respective market. Apart from the above mentioned characteristics, it is also important to be outlined that innovation can be recognised in different forms and degrees. For example, innovation can be seen primarily as incremental and radical (Afuah, 2003). Incremental innovation occurs when little novel changes are applied within an organisation (Tidd et al., 2005). It is often that incremental innovation is practiced on a continuous basis and thus is known as a process of continuous improvement which has applications in companies as Toyota and their total quality management (TQM) core strategic values (Afuah, 2003; Bessan and Francis, 1999). Contrary to the incremental innovation, the radical one is characterised with profound changes within an enterprise (Francis and Bessant, 2005). Apart from the degree of innovativeness, it is also important to be outlined that business organisations can exploit different types of innovation. The academic literature mainly outlines two main types such as product and process innovation (Boer and During, 2001; Damapur and Evans, 1984). As it can be logically proposed based on the names, the product innovation mainly concerns the products and the process innovation is implemented within the business processes to promote efficiency and effectiveness (DiLiello and Houghton, 2008). However, apart from product and process innovation, organsiational innovation is also seen as another essential type. In this context, the present analysis is specifically focuses on organisational innovation in the case of E-Bays acquisition of Skype and how this affected to the mutual organisational innovativeness. The organsiational innovativeness is mutual as this acquisition has affected both parties in a unique way (Hof, 2005). However, it should be also underlined that as E-bay has adopted and largely promoted the payment platform Pay Pal therefore the implications which Pay Pal has on Skype should be also considered (Vitzthum and Konsynski, 2009). The organisational impact which this acquisition has on Skype is substantial. On the one hand, Skype has been having significant popularity in Europe and Asia but lacked high exposure in the large American market. In this respect, as E-bay is one of the leading e-commerce platforms n the US therefore Skype would be able to benefit for such co-operation. However, the innovative characteristics of this venture do not come from the increased market exposure but from the integration of three different business models: Skype, E-bay and Pay Pal. This can be identified as a clear example of Schumpeters creative destruction, when old and orthodox patterns are substituted by novel behaviour (Hospers, 2005; Schumpeter, 1950). Furthermore, the characteristics of this organisational innovation not only should be identified within the structural implications only but also in relation to internal business resources. For example, organisational innovation promotes the interaction between different groups of employees which as a return increases the creative capability of the enterprise due to continuous knowledge-sharing and idea generation (Tushman and OReilly, 1997). This is the reason why, through this acquisition, Skype not only does gain the opportunity to get popularised within different markets but also benefit from the exchange of insight. Human resource management and in particular the collaborative performance of employees is essential to the promotion of innovation (Dodgson and Rothw, 1994). In other words, organisational innovation can promote the development of other types of innovation, such as process and product innovation as part of the internal collaborative processes. Triggers and Promoters of the Innovation The triggers and promoters of innovation can be divided into internal and external ones. The internal triggers in the present case are the desire of E-bay and Skype to grow in greater capabilities and competitiveness within diverse markets. As it was already outlined Skype had good exposure in Europe and Asia but lacked the same success in United States (Vitzthum and Konsynski, 2009). On the contrary, Skype as a prominent e-commerce platform in the US lacked significant exposure to European and Asian consumers as opposite to the intensive revenue generation in North America (Amber, 2000). Furthermore, the third element in this partnership, Pay Pal at the time of the merger was still in the beginning of its growth and therefore this collaboration looked highly positive to Pay Pals increased business capabilities and market reach. Apart from the internal drive which is always a highly influential promoter of innovation and business competitiveness, the external environment can be suggested to be another substantial stimulus to this acquisition. For example, globalisation and the continuously intensified communication between international customers influence technological development and therefore information and communication technologies as Skype have substantial opportunity to grow. Furthermore, another important trigger to the organisation is the increased market competitiveness. The adoption of innovation is generally associated to both positive and negative external sources. As it is in the present case, these are the market opportunities which the acquisition provides and the industrial competitiveness and threats which may have negative impact on the performance of the organisations. The internal and external sources of innovation, however, should not be perceived as ultimately separate entities. For example, the internal strengths of a business contribute to the business ability to exploit external opportunities and overcome external threats. In this respect, the resource based view (RBV) theory can be used as an analogue, suggesting that a firms strength derives from its internal dynamics and this promotes business continuous competitiveness (Barney, 2001). In the present context, it can be proposed that the current case of organisational restructuring and innovation affects the increased resource capabilities of the business and thus promotes the ventures greater competitiveness. Reactions to the Adopted Innovation As Joseph Schumpeter suggests, innovation is a phenomenon which causes disruption and change (Hospers, 2006; Schumpeter, 1950). This is the reason why, innovation and all processes related to its adoption creates certain internal and external reaction. In the present case, the reactions of E-bays acquisition of Skype and integration of Pay Pal cannot be assessed entirely from internal perspective as the author of the present report cannot access this internal information. However, there are certain outcomes which can be clearly recognised in the academic literature which can be conceptually and theoretically integrated in the current analysis. One of the primary reactions which can be identified in the internal environment of a company when innovation is adopted is the rejection by employees to accept the proposed change (Hiatt and Creasey, 2003). This is especially common in the cases of organisational restructuring which is resulted by mergers and acquisitions (Fedor and Harold, 2004). Employees perceive this as a risk to their career and job stability. However, the present acquisition cannot be recognised with any major physical and structural transformations and therefore it may not have had such a substantial impact over employees. Another reaction which can be identified with such a horizontal diversification and organisational innovation is seen within the external context and in particular in customers and competitors (Cook, 2004). For example, customers become interested in the collaborative propositions which the brands are likely to provide. For example, Skype has been continuously innovating and applying some incremental innovations and improvements due to the wider market share the company is exposed to. This is the reason why, Skype has developed various video and communication application within its platform to fit the needs of multiple customer segments. This is true innovation, not only it needs to be novel but it also need to have commercial and market value (Damanpour, 1991). Strategic Characteristics The present case reveals an innovative organisational situation the acquisition of E-bay of Skype. This is an approach of horizontal diversification by E-bay which not only does have substantial impacts on E-bay but on Skype as well. This is an example of the interconnectivity of innovation it cannot be conducted in isolation and it has effect on multiple business aspects. For example, the organisational innovation resulted in Skypes producing a continuous incremental innovation, developing and introducing new applications to fit the needs of various segments. The platform introduced multiple video streaming which is highly applicable to ordinary users, families and business conferencing. This multiple application of innovation is exactly the purpose and value of the phenomenon. It is important to be underlined that innovation is a powerful source of competitiveness but it needs significant internal commitment. This is the reason why, leadership can be recognised as essential promoter of innovative behaviour. Leadership is the process which motivates and inspires organisational commitment. In the context of incremental innovation, employees need to be continuously committed to promote the innovative performance of the business. Leadership, however, should not be confused with management as these are different approaches to people management, development and co-ordination. Management can be explained as the process of executing business processes and operations in an efficient manner whereas leadership is the approach of doing the right things identifying solutions where no structure guidance exists. This is the reason why leadership is needed to stimulate employees commitment to innovation (Alves et al., 2007). People management and team work are essential to innovation development as this process stimulate idea generation and knowledge sharing between different individuals which is synthesised in the creation of a novel and meaningful solution. References Afuah. A. (2003) Innovation Management. (2nd ed.) Oxford: Oxford University Press. Alves, J., Marques, M., Saur, I. and Marques, P. (2007) Creativity and Innovation through Multidisciplinary and Multisectoral Cooperation, Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 27 34. Anon (2008) Change management and employee motivation: the balancing act [online]. Available from: http://www.articlesbase.com/recruitment-articles/change-management-and-employee-motivation-the-balancing-act-672944.html [Accessed: 04/05/11] Barney, J. (2001) Is the Resource-Based Theory a Useful Perspective for Strategic Management Research?.Yes., Journal of Management, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 99 120. Barney, J., Wright, M. and Ketchen Jr., D. (2001) The resource-based view of the firm: Ten years after 1991.,Journal of Management, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 625 641. Bennet, B (2009) Change management: Motivation [online]. Available from: http://billbennett.co.nz/2009/09/16/change-management-motivation/ [Accessed: 04/04/11] Bessant, J. (2003) High Involvement Innovation. Chichester: John Wiley Sons. Bessant, J. and Francis, D. (1999) Developing strategic continuous improvement capability, International Journal of Operations Production Management. Vol. 19, No. 11, pp. 1106 1119. Boer, H. and During, W.E. (2001) Innovation. What innovation? A comparison between product, process and organisational innovation, International Journal of Technology Management, Vol. 22, No. 1/2/3, pp. 83 -107. Cook, S. (2004), Change management excellence: using the four intelligences for successful organizational, Kogan Page Publishers. Available from: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Y9BcWvY-0SMCprintsec=frontcoverdq=change+managementlr=#v=onepageq=f=false [Accessed: 04/03/11]. Dahlgaard, J. J., Kristensen, K. and Kanji, K. G. (1998) Fundamental of Total Quality Management. London: Chapman Hall. Damanpour, F. (1991) Organizational Innovation: A Meta-Analysis of Effects of Determinants and Moderators, The Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 555 590. Damanpour, F. and Gopalakrishnan, S. (2001) The Dynamics of the Adoption of Product and Process Innovations in Organizations, Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 45 65. Dewar, D. R. and Dutton, E. J. (1986) The Adoption of Radical and Incremental Innovations: An Empirical Analysis, Management Science, Vol. 32, No. 11, pp. 1422 1433. Fedor and Harold (2004) Effects of Change and Change Management on Employee Responses: An Overview of results from multiple studies [online]. Available from: http://www.cpbis.gatech.edu/research/workin g_papers/CPBIS-WP-04-02%20Herold_Fedor_Change%20 Management%20Fall%202004.pdf [Accessed: 04/04/11] Francis, D. and Bessant, J. (2005) Targeting innovation and implications for development, Technovation, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 171 183. Hiatt, J and Creasey (2003) Change management: the people side of change, Prosci. Available from: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id =zQTy8mk8kZYCprintsec=frontcoverdq=change+management#v=onepageq=f=false [Accessed: 04/04/11] Hof, R. (2005) Why ebay is buying Skype, Businessweek. Retrienved: 10/09, form: http://www.businessweek. com/the_thread/techbeat/archives/2005/09/why_ebay_is_buy.html. [Accessed: 05/04/11]. Hospers, J. G. (2005) Joseph Schumpeter and His Legacy in Innovation Studies, Knowledge, Technology Policy, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 20-37. Robinson, A. (1991) Continuous Improvement In Operations. Cambridge: Productivity Press. Schumpeter, J. (1950) Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy. (3rd ed.) New York: Harper Row. Leede, de J. and Looise, K. J. (2005) Innovation and HRM: Towards an Integrated Framework, Creativity and Innovation Management, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 108 117. Tidd, J., Bessant. J. and Pavitt. K. (2005) Managing Innovation. (3rd ed.) Chichester: John Wiley Sons Ltd. Tushman, M. L. and OReilly, C. (1997) Winning through Innovation: A Practical Guide to Leading Organizational Change and Renewal. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. Van de Ven, A. H., Polley. E. D., Graud. R. and Venkataraman. S. (1999) The innovation journey. New York: Oxford University Press. Vitzthum, S. and Konsynski, B. (2009) EBAYs Acquistion of Skype SA: Valuing the Voice of the Buyer, The Communications of the Association for Information Systems, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 89 104. Table of Contents References 9 Introduction to the Case study The present cases study focuses on Apple which is one of the leading and most innovative producers of technologies and entertainment devices. The company is continuously growing in size and is attracting greater market share. In this respect, the analysis focuses on the particular product and service innovation which are provided by the organisation to sustain continuous competitiveness. It is essential to be underlined that product and process innovation should not be perceived as separate entities (Afuah, 2003). It is often that business organisation incorporate both product and process innovation as interconnected elements of a mutual strategy of industrial competitiveness (Francis and Bessant, 2005). It should be also underlined that often, process innovation is stimulated as a natural outcome of product innovativeness, it appears as a logical and complementary derivative. It is also important to be mentioned that the present case study focuses on another essential element of the development and introduction of innovation, such as business leadership. It specifically focuses on the companys most prominent decision-maker and leader Steve Jobs, and analyses his approaches to business management and innovation leadership. Innovation Types and Characteristics As already revealed in the previous case study, innovation is a popular phenomenon which pioneer Joseph Schumpeter describes as the process of creative destruction. In other words, innovation is a novel solution which has commercialised applicability and significant market value (Hospers, 2005; Freeman and Soete, 1997; Kleinknecht and Mohnen, 2002). This definition clearly describes the innovation which is produced by Apple, one of the leading technological innovators. The company utilises a number of innovative products in its iPhone, iPad and iPod series of entertainment products. The innovative performance of the organisation can be recognised as highly distinctive. The company utilises and merges different types and degrees of innovativeness. The academic literature describes primarily two types of innovation such as, product and process innovation (Storey, 2000). However, often companies can utilise a mix of the two as it is in the case of Apple. The company has popular products as iPad, iPod and iPhone which are complemented by the innovative platform iTunes where users can download music and create playlists to play on their iPods. Moreover, there are hundreds if not thousands of applications which are created by Apple software developers which are downloaded and used on any of the iPad and iPhone devices. This is an example of how the company engages customers through a full life cycle they are provided with innovative products and service from the save brand which ensures long-term loyalty and re-purchase (Iacobucci and Calder, 2003; Kotler and Keller, 2008). The innovative management of products and services at Apple has been led by a management and leadership approach which can be identified with high level of confidentiality, secrecy and partial isolation. Contrary to the conceptual understanding in the academic literature that innovation is stimulate through continuous knowledge sharing and idea generation, Steve Jobs promoted an environment of micro-management and high level of internal control. However, this has led to paradoxical results Apple is continuously generating market share, profitability and above all customers loyalty (Daft et al., 2010). One of the explanations for this outcome can be related to the resource based view theory. Similarly to the previous case study on Skype and E-bay, Apple seems to be also taking advantage of the strength of its internal resources. The resource based view theory suggests that a companys success is derived from the uniqueness and competitiveness of its internal resources (Johnson and Scholes, 2008).This approach is closely related and relevant to the leadership and management initiatives practiced by Apples main decision-maker Steve Jobs. Jobs approaches to people management can be identified and strict but with high level of fairness. However, this leadership and management approach sustains certain risks as too much of micro-management and strictness may decrease employees creativity and innovative capabilities (Daft et al., 2010; Goleman, 1998). Employees are essential source to innovation development and therefore people management should stimulate an environment which promotes the expression of employees creativity and innovativeness, such as: team work; knowledge sharing; initiativeness; risk taking; company and market wide exposure (Rogers, 1995; Tushman and OReilly, 1997; Van de Ven et al., 1999). Innovation Promoters and Obstacles One of the primary promoters of Apples innovative capabilities is the significant strength of internal resources and capabilities. In other words, in order for a companys resources to be considered as contributory to the overall business competitiveness and innovativeness they need to be rare, unique and valuable not only to the particular organisation but to the market place (Barney, 2001). In this respect, the internal resources which are in possession of Apple perform in a highly competitive manner. In this context, one of the greatest promoters of the companys innovativeness is the leadership approach conducted by Jobs which focuses on growth of internal technological capacity and utilisation of internal employees skills. However, it should be underlined that this type of leadership and internal management can lead to certain problems in the company. On the one hand, the substantial commitment practiced by Jobs is a clear indicator of a strong leadership (Day, 2000; Gill, 2006). He is devoted to the wellbeing of the company and therefore he often practices micro-management. However, on the other hand, this micro-management approach can result in certain difficulties and obstacles to the production of innovation. This can reduce employees freedom to be creative and innovative, to take initiative and risks in their decision-making which are all important components in the process of innovation management and development (Daft et al., 2010; Slack et al., 2007; Tidd et al., 2005). Reactions and Restrictions to Innovation The reaction to Apples innovation can be divided into internal and external. The internal reaction is related to employees performance to the development and introduction of innovation. In the present case, Jobs is one of the primary stakeholders in this process of innovation development which can be suggested to restrict employees commitment to the process of innovation development. As it was already outline, innovation development is a process which requires a people management approach which stimulates employees creativity and innovativeness (Alves et al., 2007; Storey, 2000). Furthermore, especially in the case of a cumulative product and process innovation, employees need to be provided with company-wide exposure (Leede and Looise, 2005). In the present case, however, the manger of the company restricts employees involvement in multiple processes. This restricts the ability of employees to get inspired by different departments, responsibilities and ideas. This is fundamentally important to the process of idea generation and creative destruction, when old patterns and thinking habits are substituted by innovative solutions (Hospers, 2005). Another essential restriction which needs to be clearly outlined is the industrial isolation of Apple as compared to other brands. In other words, it can be suggested that Apple refrains from collaborating with other industrial players. On the one hand, this protection is needed in the cutting edge technological industry. On the other, hand, however, Apple misses out on opportunities for strategic partnerships, co-operative research and development, and industrial collaboration (Drucker, 1991). These are all essential components for the continuous and successful adoption of innovation. In other words, in order for a company to be able to produce product and process innovation it needs to have substantial exposure to the industry and market trends (Dodgson and Rothw, 1994). In this context, as it can be identified from Apples comparative industrial isolation which is product of Jobs autocracy management may result in certain long-term risks and unfavourable internal and external reactions. For example, employees motivation may decrease due to the lack of responsibility, ownership and team work to which they are exposed. This is the reason why, employees may become passively aggressive and thus cease being productive due to undermined professional morale. However, it is also important to be outlined that this operational isolation may also have impacts on the industrial competitiveness in the sector. Other technological companies may embrace a copy-cat approach and adopt Apples innovation, therefore Apple will face increasing competitiveness rather than fruitful industrial partnerships (Ettlie, 1999; Kleinknecht and Mohnen, 2002; Kotler and Keller, 2008). Strategy Development and Leadership Another important issue is the strategic development and continuous leadership approaches of the company. Apple is one of the leading providers of entertainment technological devices. The company utilises both product and process innovation which provides them with the opportunity to attract greater customers interest and stimulate customers loyalty which is essential to sustaining continuous revenue generation (Groucutt et al., 2004; Kotler and Keller, 2008). Apart from the combination of product and process innovation, it is interesting to be outlined that Apple also utilises different degrees of innovativeness. The academic literature outlines two primary degrees of innovative impact, such as radical and increment (Bessant, 2003). In this respect, the radical innovation produced by Apple can be recognised in the highly innovative devices which it produces. For example, the switch from walkman and CD player music devices to Apples iPod is radical. In the same sense it is the companys iPhone which is pioneer of the smart phones in the industry. However, this radical innovativeness is also accompanied by incremental novelty Apple produces different upgrades on the devices and new models are released each year. This type of industrial performance has highly influential marketing impact. In other words, customers are continuously engaged with Apples novel propositions and therefore their life time purchasing is extended (Hollensen, 2007). Another essential aspect of the management of the company is the leadership approach which is applied by Steve Jobs. As it was already identified, the decision-maker focuses on the management of an authoritarian approach of managing employees. This causes certain internal secrecy and business isolation. Although, secrecy may be justified as important and necessary condition to survive in the high-tech industry, business isolation cannot be recognised as a positive outcome especially in the context of innovation management (Francis and Bessant, 2005). Finally, the personal approach to management and micro-management deployed by Jobs is also another leadership choice which can be criticized. In other words, through his leadership approaches, Jobs does not promote and sustains intellectual capital within the organisation. For example, if he leaves the company all the ideas, rules, processes and perceptions will leave with him. The primary contributor to this unfavourable outcome will be the reduced engagement of employees on a company-wide level. Apple is currently one of the most innovative companies in the market but the business innovativeness needs to be continuously sustained and updated in order for the company to be able to adequately serve the needs of customers.

catcher in the rye :: essays research papers

The Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain. Growing up is a ritual – more deadly than religion, more complicated than baseball, for there seem to be no rules. Everything is experienced for the first time.† To What extent do you agree with this passage? Do you agree that Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain? Do you agree that growing up is a ritual? You need to identify whether or not you agree with this passage, and then you need to justify/support your answer. I do agree with the statement classing Catcher in the Rye as â€Å"the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains.† I do not agree with the statement â€Å"growing up is a ritual.† Certainly J.D. Salinger’s novel is focused around the pain of growing up; a novel about a young character’s growth into maturity, but this novel explores the process from a different perspective. Holden Caulfield is an unusual protagonist for supporting this theme because his central goal is to resist the process of maturity itself. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, Holden’s last name Caulfield literally symbolizes caul, the membrane enveloping the head of a child at birth.† Holden fears change and is overwhelmed by complexity. Holden desires everything to be easily understandable and eternally fixed. During a visit to the museum of natural history Holden uses exhibits to explain his resistance to change, â€Å"The best thing, though, in that museum was that everything always stayed right where it was. Nobody’d move. You could go there a hundred thousand times, and that Eskimo would still be just finished catching those two fish. Nobody’d be different. The only thing that would be different would be you (Salinger, 121).† Holden resists maturity and is a frightened teenager, he is frightened because he is guilty of the sins he criticizes in others and because he cannot understand the world around him. Holden however, refuses to acknowledge this fear, expressing it only on a few occasions – for example, when he talks about sex admitting that â€Å"sex is something I just don’t understand. I swear to God I don’t (Salinger, 63).† Rather than acknowledging that adulthood scares and mystifies him, Holden invents a fantasy that adulthood is a world of superficiality and hypocrisy, while childhood is a world of innocence, curiosity and honesty. catcher in the rye :: essays research papers The Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain. Growing up is a ritual – more deadly than religion, more complicated than baseball, for there seem to be no rules. Everything is experienced for the first time.† To What extent do you agree with this passage? Do you agree that Catcher in the Rye is the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains, of growing up in pain? Do you agree that growing up is a ritual? You need to identify whether or not you agree with this passage, and then you need to justify/support your answer. I do agree with the statement classing Catcher in the Rye as â€Å"the definitive novel of a young man’s growing pains.† I do not agree with the statement â€Å"growing up is a ritual.† Certainly J.D. Salinger’s novel is focused around the pain of growing up; a novel about a young character’s growth into maturity, but this novel explores the process from a different perspective. Holden Caulfield is an unusual protagonist for supporting this theme because his central goal is to resist the process of maturity itself. According to Webster’s New World Dictionary, Holden’s last name Caulfield literally symbolizes caul, the membrane enveloping the head of a child at birth.† Holden fears change and is overwhelmed by complexity. Holden desires everything to be easily understandable and eternally fixed. During a visit to the museum of natural history Holden uses exhibits to explain his resistance to change, â€Å"The best thing, though, in that museum was that everything always stayed right where it was. Nobody’d move. You could go there a hundred thousand times, and that Eskimo would still be just finished catching those two fish. Nobody’d be different. The only thing that would be different would be you (Salinger, 121).† Holden resists maturity and is a frightened teenager, he is frightened because he is guilty of the sins he criticizes in others and because he cannot understand the world around him. Holden however, refuses to acknowledge this fear, expressing it only on a few occasions – for example, when he talks about sex admitting that â€Å"sex is something I just don’t understand. I swear to God I don’t (Salinger, 63).† Rather than acknowledging that adulthood scares and mystifies him, Holden invents a fantasy that adulthood is a world of superficiality and hypocrisy, while childhood is a world of innocence, curiosity and honesty.

Characters, Setting, Themes, and Symbols of Heart of Darkness Essay

Characters, Setting, Themes, and Symbols of Heart of Darkness      Ã‚   Deep within the chest of every man, woman, and child beats the heart of darkness. On the surface, mankind has achieved a sophisticated level of civilization. Joseph Conrad forces the reader to peel away the pristine layer of sweetness and see the unaltered truth. Heart of Darkness reveals the true nature that lurks behind every smile, handshake, and conversation. Conrad's portrayal of the characters, setting, symbols, and ironies allow the reader to reflect on the true nature of man.    Each of the main characters in Heart of Darkness plays a significant role in the overall theme of the novel. The central character is a thirty two year old sailor, Charlie Marlow. He is a dynamic character who essentially controls the development of the theme. Through Marlow's experiences and revelations, the author illustrates how forces of light and darkness serve to weave the human soul together; thus, essentially how good and evil are reflected in an individual. Marlow's journey leads him in an urgent search for Kurtz, the one man who can... ...art lies the raw evil of untamed lifestyle" (Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation).    Works Cited "The Congo" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Penguin Books, 1983. "The Fear" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). "Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation of the darkness inherent in men's souls" "The Perfect Native" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). "The Setting" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). Characters, Setting, Themes, and Symbols of Heart of Darkness Essay Characters, Setting, Themes, and Symbols of Heart of Darkness      Ã‚   Deep within the chest of every man, woman, and child beats the heart of darkness. On the surface, mankind has achieved a sophisticated level of civilization. Joseph Conrad forces the reader to peel away the pristine layer of sweetness and see the unaltered truth. Heart of Darkness reveals the true nature that lurks behind every smile, handshake, and conversation. Conrad's portrayal of the characters, setting, symbols, and ironies allow the reader to reflect on the true nature of man.    Each of the main characters in Heart of Darkness plays a significant role in the overall theme of the novel. The central character is a thirty two year old sailor, Charlie Marlow. He is a dynamic character who essentially controls the development of the theme. Through Marlow's experiences and revelations, the author illustrates how forces of light and darkness serve to weave the human soul together; thus, essentially how good and evil are reflected in an individual. Marlow's journey leads him in an urgent search for Kurtz, the one man who can... ...art lies the raw evil of untamed lifestyle" (Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation).    Works Cited "The Congo" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. New York: Penguin Books, 1983. "The Fear" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). "Heart of Darkness: A systematic evaluation of the darkness inherent in men's souls" "The Perfect Native" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002). "The Setting" Created December 07, 1997 (Accessed 12 February 2002).

Emancipation Proclamation :: essays research papers

Emancipation Proclamation, proclamation issued by Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War, declaring all "slaves within any State, or designated part of a State ... then ... in rebellion, ... shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free." The states affected were enumerated in the proclamation; specifically exempted were slaves in parts of the South then held by Union armies. Lincoln's issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation marked a radical change in his policy; historians regard it as one of the great state documents of the United States. After the outbreak of the Civil War, the slavery issue was made acute by the flight to Union lines of large numbers of slaves who volunteered to fight for their freedom and that of their fellow slaves. In these circumstances, a strict application of established policy would have required return of fugitive slaves to their Confederate masters and would have alienated the staunchest supporters of the Union cause in the North and abroad. Abolitionists had long been urging Lincoln to free all slaves, and public opinion seemed to support this view. Advertisement Lincoln moved slowly and cautiously nonetheless; on March 13, 1862, the federal government forbade all Union army officers to return fugitive slaves, thus annulling in effect the fugitive slave laws. On April 10, on Lincoln's initiative, Congress declared the federal government would compensate slave owners who freed their slaves. All slaves in the District of Columbia were freed in this way on April 16, 1862. On June 19, 1862, Congress enacted a measure prohibiting slavery in United States territories, thus defying the Supreme Court decision in the Dred Scott case, which ruled that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in the territories. Finally, after the Union victory in the Battle of Antietam (September 17, 1862), Lincoln issued a preliminary proclamation on September 22, declaring his intention of promulgating another proclamation in 100 days, freeing the slaves in the states deemed in rebellion at that time. On January 1, 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, conferring liberty on about 3,120,000 slaves. With the enactment of the 13th Amendment to the U.S.

The Effects of One-Child Policy on Chinese Kinship

Burt Jiang Anthropology 331 4/22/2013 Term Paper The origins of Chinese civilization derive its roots from the Huang-he and Yangtze Rivers. Like other ancient river valley civilizations, these two rivers provided early Chinese settlers with the raw materials necessary to sustain culture and society. Burgeoning from small, scattered clans, autonomous groups of Chinese villages situated around the rivers would in turn become the building blocks of the ancient Chinese dynasties to the modern day, People’s Republic of China.The system of clans became an effective method of identifying one’s own lineage through the maintenance of a single surname throughout the clan. As the social structure of the clan grew, the complex interactions among clan and non-clan members eventually synergized to create China’s own form of kinship. Anthropologists have since come to classify Chinese kinship under the broader term of Sudanese kinship. The Sudanese, and by extension Chinese, ki nship is considered the most complex system with a separate designation for almost every one of ego’s kin based on generation, lineage, relative age, and gender.As observed, the Chinese kinship system already has a strictly defined scheme of kin identification, but the monikers only serve as an outline of China’s kinship system. The true backbone of Chinese kinship draws its source from Confucian ideals, ideals that have been deeply ingrained in Chinese dogma since the late fifth century B. C. Among his teachings of filial piety and ancestor worship, Confucius outlines for the Chinese people the five most basic interactions: interactions between ruler and subject; father and son; elder and younger brother; husband and wife; and between friends.Of the five interactions, the interactions between father-son, and husband-wife, have seen the greatest amount of development and change throughout to course of China’s history. As China exited the feudal age and entered t he modern world as The People’s Republic of China, the two interactions identified experienced considerable changes while maintaining their signature Chinese accent. Feudal China’s departure, and the advent of communist China, has brought forth rapid family reform and ultimately, the initiation of the One-Child Policy. Even in the face of rapid modernization and reform, the trong influences of Confucian ideals and an intrinsic patrilineal descent pattern still characterize Chinese kinship; however, the introduction of the One-Child Policy, and its ramifications, has put stress on the traditional Chinese family structures as well as possibly creating many more problems future generations must solve. Of all the pseudo-religious institutions that took hold in China, Daoism and Zen Buddhism, most notably, the concept of ancestor worship put forth by Confucius is by far the most ubiquitous in Chinese culture and kinship relationships.Defined by the nine agnates, Confucius t ook great efforts to outline the nuclear family as clearly as possible, three generations prior to the ego, the ego, and three generations after the ego. Within the nine agnates, ancestral worship and filial piety became the driving forces that perpetuated kinship interactions in China for generations. Thus forms the cyclical cycle of Chinese kinship, the younger generations are kept in line by the rules of filial piety while the older generation is kept in memory and reverence via ancestral worship.The importance of ancestor worship can be conceptualized and materialized through the complex mourning attire and rituals exhibited by the Chinese people. Much like the suru’ai of Kwaio, individuals in mourning must display no worldly attachment, must not be seen in public, must have abstain from sexual activity, and generally must live a life of detachment throughout the mourning period (Akin March 11). The mourning period is defined by the relationship of the mourner to the indi vidual that has passed away; consequently, the duration of this period can range from three months to three years based on the strength of the bond shared.During a time of mourning, individuals must also wear complementing attire to signify which stage of mourning he/she is in; hence the attire has evolved into the five degrees of mourning attire. Chinese mourning rituals were taken very seriously within the clans and the act of proposing to an individual exhibiting any stage of the five degrees of mourning attire was considered highly immoral and taboo. Rituals of ancestor worship, like mourning ceremonies and attire, serve to underscore the importance of the ancestors to the Chinese people.The sterility, and structure, of the mourning period is an excellent example of the reverence Chinese individuals hold for their deceased kin; to interrupt the transition from individual to ancestor is still considered highly disrespectful and taboo even in modern China. Ancestor worship provide s a broad blanket of allegiance for the Chinese kinship system. The importance of ancestor worship is to keep entire clans together, but the smaller familial units require a force more tenable and exact.Within the nuclear family, Confucius saw the wisdom to conceive of another ideal that complements the notion of ancestor worship, that idea being filial piety. Filial piety, in turn, provides the construct in which the five relationships, outlined earlier, can be practically maintained and perpetuated. Confucius’ relationship of father and son is kept constant by the power of filial piety. Younger generations are taught to respect and heed the advice of their forefathers. Consequently, this interaction creates an incredibly structured kinship system in which obedience is preferential to individuality.The rules defined by filial piety culminated in the written document known as The Great Qing Legal Code, introduced during the Qing Dynasty, 1644 to 1912. This document not only p rovided, in great detail, the laws and codes regarding kinship bonds on all five levels of relationship, but it also included the punishments if those bonds were broken or tested by crime (Jones 29). Criminal activity was therefore punished more severely if the crime committed was within the clan, and further intensified if the offence was committed against a higher ranking individual.The importance of upholding the kinship relations set forth by Confucius can be seen in the Code’s punishment for breaking the first and foremost relationship of ruler and subject. Punishment for breaking China’s most important bond resulted in what is known as: â€Å"The extermination of nine kindreds†. Any individual who commits treason against his/her emperor would be subject to the complete annihilation of his/her nine agnates, effectively erasing that individual’s bloodline (Jones 16).This incredibly overt punishment trickled down, with lesser severity, to the other fou r relationships, and ultimately underlined the importance of loyalty to kin and emperor. Filial piety’s significance is further stressed in the father-son relationship because of China’s early affinity to the patrilineal descent system, echoes from the country’s roots in the clan structure. Since only males can bear and preserve the family surname, loyalty of the son to the father became critical in a patrilineal descent system.In order to ensure the lineage’s continuation, carefully arranged marriages between families would rise as the forefront solution. Chinese kinship, like many other systems, relies on the institution of marriage as bridge between two bodies of people. Recognized in Confucian teachings, a married couple is considered the most basic social unit from which other relationships stem. In Chinese culture, marriages were generally arranged by a matchmaker who would bless the union. After the marriage, the wife would be incorporated into the husband’s family; thus resulting in the importance of the production of sons to keep the family surname.Throughout history, Chinese marriages and kinship revolved around the production of viable sons to carry the family name. Like Kwaio societies, fertility of the mother proved to be of paramount importance when evaluating a marriage relationship (Akin February 20). It is important to take note, however, that while monogamy was the accepted practice, polygamy gained prominence in imperial families that could not produce a healthy male heir, a problem solved also by nurture kinship (Akin January 23).Once married, divorce was possible only if the wife was proved to have engaged in one of these seven offences: failure to observe filial piety to the parent-in-laws, failure to bear a son, consistently vulgar or lewd, harbors jealousy, has a vile disease, gossips too much, or commits a theft. Although unusual to western societies, gossip is viewed as a poison to families and clans because of its inherent proclivity to hyperbole and fabrication. Patrilineal descent’s importance can be clearly observed in marriage rituals as divorce is only possible if the female fails to produce a son or commits other errs.There are, however, three distinct situations in which a wife is guaranteed immunity from a divorce, those three situations being: the wife has no family to return to, the wife has observed a full three year mourning period for her parent-in-law, or if her husband was poor during marriage and is currently wealth. In conjunction with ancestor worship, filial piety, and the structured marriage system, Chinese kinship has developed these three hallmark pillars to safeguard strong kinship bonds of father-son and husband-wife from one generation to the next.Although only briefly mentioned earlier, the wedding ceremonies themselves are a testament to the extravagance and importance of a decision such as marriage to the Chinese people. Categorized by the si x etiquettes, Chinese wedding ceremonies consisted of: the proposal, birthdates, bride price, wedding gifts, arranging the wedding, and the ceremony itself. Each of the six etiquettes involves a highly organized succession of events that would lead to marriage of husband and wife. The first two steps, proposal and birthdates, involve a matchmaker evaluating a potential daughter-in-law for marriage.If the divination rituals, Suan Ming, are positive and both sides of the marriage accept the terms, the next step would be submitting a bride price (Wolf 102). Bride price, or betrothal gifts, is then presented by the matchmaker to the bridegroom’s family completing the pre-wedding rituals. The actual wedding ceremony is somewhat austere in comparison to its preparation. It simply involves, in western society terms, the exchanging of vows and good blessings followed by paying respects to the Jade Emperor, other deities, and each family’s ancestors.Finally, the wedding banquet is the closing event in the marriage process and is often more lively and festive. Traditionally, the groom is responsible for the cost of the wedding invitation, pastries, the banquet invitations, and the wedding itself. Wedding banquets are elaborate and consist usually of five to ten courses, with ingredients such as  shark's fin,  abalone,  lobster,  squab,  sea cucumber,  swift nests,  fish roe  in soup or as decoration on top of a dish to symbolize fertility, and local delicacies (Wolf 88).Customarily, the father of the bride is responsible for the wedding banquet hosted on the bride's side and the alcohol consumed during both banquets. The wedding banquets are two separate banquets: the primary banquet is hosted once at the bride's side, the second banquet, smaller banquet, at the groom's side. While the wedding itself is often based on the couple's choices, the wedding banquets are a gesture of appreciation, to those that have raised the bride and groom, suc h as grandparents and uncles.Additionally, this gesture incorporates the ideas of nurture kinship, in which kinship persists and even thrives beyond the nuclear family. Grandparents, aunts, and uncles, of both sides of the family would often offer help in raising a family’s child in an attempt to establish nurture kinship bonds. These bonds would then be materialized through gift exchange during the wedding banquet and other important family occasions. The two banquets serve also to ensure the relatives on each side meet the relatives on the other side (Wolf 49).Thus out of respect for the elders, wedding banquets are usually done formally and traditionally, which the older generation is thought to be more comfortable with. As one can see, the six etiquettes of the marriage and its accompanying practices come together to create a single cohesive event meant to bring two families of different clan origins together as one. The traditions and conventions of Chinese kinship that have been examined have been kept constant for much of the nation’s history until the late 19th century and early 20th century.As political turmoil and growing dissatisfaction with the incumbent Qing Dynasty rose, the Chinese population made a push towards reform. After two decades of consolidation, dynastic China emerged from the feudal era as The Republic of China in 1912 headed by Sun Yat-sen. During the Nationalist era, Chinese kinship saw a slow movement towards modernity, a topic discussed in other sources but not focused on in this paper (See Hinton and Zarrow). The one exception to the evolution of kinship in China during this period was the residual influence of The Great Qing Legal Code.Although never referred to by name since the fall of the Qing, the collection of codes put forth by China’s forefathers manifested itself as a strict penal code during the Republic era, and would be re-adapted based on socialist law during the People’s Republic era (Jon es 229). Even when the governments representing China adjust to better fit its changing political landscape, the influences of Confucian teachings still resonate deeply in Chinese kinship and culture. Ultimately, the capitalistic ways of Nationalist China began to brew dissatisfaction among the classes as predicted by the rising popularity of Marxist theory at the time.The issues described by Marx, such as class conflict, were only exacerbated by China’s already enormous proletariat population. Eventually, and inevitably, The Republic of China was usurped by the communist oriented People’s Republic of China, headed by Mao Zedong in 1949. Mao’s rise to ascendancy and the subsequent initiation family reform policies such as the One-Child Policy has had tremendous consequences on traditional Chinese kinship structure and maintenance. The communist party’s policies regarding family and kin have persisted into the 21st century with some repercussions already a pparent, and others that have yet to be evaluated.The newly formed People’s Republic of China introduced itself to the modern world as a backward, unsophisticated nation of peasants led by a few intellectuals. Needless to say, the communist party saw prudence in creating a new image for itself. Family size and structure rose to the top of the communist party’s agenda as a target for transformation. In 1979, the Chinese government embarked on an ambitious campaign of market reform following the economic stagnation of the Cultural Revolution. The government saw strict population containment as essential to economic reform and to improvement of living standards.So championed by The State Family Planning Bureau, the One-Child Policy was introduced. In its execution, the Policy did everything the Chinese government hoped for by preventing roughly 100 million child births as of 2009 (Hesketh 1173). Although effective in containing China’s population growth, the One-Ch ild Policy proved to have meaningful impacts in other aspects of Chinese culture, particularly Chinese kinship. The Policy’s repercussions are in direct conflict with China’s oldest tradition of ancestor worship.A ritual that had been a driving force of Chinese kinship since the very beginning of feudal China is now at odds with the policies of modern China. Specifically, the One-Child Policy has created a conundrum known as the four-two-one (referred to as 4:2:1) phenomenon. The phenomenon is the estimated ratio of grandparents to parents to children currently existing in China (Hesketh 1171). Immediately, the most apparent issue is the imbalance of the ratio between grandparents to grandchildren, essentially for every one child there exist four grandparents.This many not seem like an issue to western societies, but China’s enormous population, a result of post-WWII baby boom trends, exacerbates the ratio to a breaking point. Traditional kinship bonds dictate t hat the younger generations must care and nurture for their elders. However with such an unbalanced ratio of individuals between the generations, China’s sons are failing to support their fathers while jeopardizing their own livelihood. Confucius’ signature relationship of father-son is now threatened greatly by the incurred financial burden of China’s youth.Changes in kinship structure and, to a lesser degree, family structure are driven by changes in fertility and mortality. The drastic reduction in fertility has substantially reduced the number of children born to each family, so that the extensive horizontal kinship ties of China’s past have essentially been curtailed (Jiang 128). However, improvements in mortality have brought unprecedented longevity to China’s elderly, and an overlap of generations that has made vertical kinship ties increasingly common (Jiang 129).Ancestor worship is at odds with China’s new agenda of population refor m and containment. The sudden reduction of horizontal kinship bonds and gross amplification of vertical kinship bonds forces China’s newest generation to pick between financially stability, through neglecting their elders, or supporting their elders, through draining their own personal capital. Similar to ancestor worship, the Confucian concepts of filial piety and marriage are also tested by the One-Child Policy.Starting with filial piety, the stipulation that families can only bear one child has put tremendous emphasis on patrilineal descent and the birth of sons. In feudal China, citizens were given the opportunity to produce as many offspring as needed and yet some families still failed to produce sons, and lineages were lost. Now, with only one opportunity, modern Chinese families have put an unprecedented level of importance to a mother’s ability to bear a male child. This in turn critically affects the father-son dynamic established by Confucius.Instead of overt ly obeying one’s parents, male children in China now understand the importance of their position, and exploit it. China’s newest generation of males have exhibited an unrecorded level of sexual, social, and media experimentation, generations of sexual and individual repression are just now starting to be shattered (Fong 1103). Additionally, the One-Child Policy has had mixed impact on the status of females and by extension marriage. With very limited contraception available for women, the One-Child Policy has forced families to prioritize the birth of males over females.This inevitably leads to the marginalization of the female gender in modern China and an incredibly imbalanced gender ratio. However, the results of the Policy on woman’s social status in China are not completely skewed to one, negative aspect. Those women who are kept by their families have just recently seen an unparalleled lift in their social positions and powers. Daughters empowered by the s upport of their parents, with no sons to favor, are able to defy detrimental norms while strategically using ones that give them advantages in the educational system and the job and marriage markets (Fong 1105).Furthermore, divorce rates have never been higher in modern China as a result of the empowered female gender. Women are more freely seeking new relationships and marriages, a notion inconceivable during the height of Confucian marriage practices. Modernity is an atypical force. Traditional kinship relationships and marriage practices of China are not necessarily broken by modern policies, like the One-Child, but they are certainly altered from their ancestral conceptualizations in feudal China. Chinese kinship is one of the most unique and complicated kinship systems ever examined.The kinship bonds established by the Chinese people may appear outwardly strict or even ascetic, but underneath the guise of structure, is an incredibly resilient dogma that still influences kinship in China today. Confucius’ ideas of ancestor worship, filial piety, and marriage all amalgamate to create a system of kinship that has withstood dynasties, regimes, and political parties. The recent challenges presented by the One-Child Policy have certainly put strain on traditional kinship relationships like that of father to son.Yet, the elevation of the female gender and increased fluidity in marriage rituals signify that Chinese kinship is not as stagnant as some anthropologists believe. No matter how much change is imposed on China’s kinship, the voice of Confucius will always permeate families, marriages, siblings, and children. Works Cited Directly used in paper: Akin, David. â€Å"Doubts, Critiques, and Revisions of Kinship Studies. † Anthropology 331. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, 23 January 2013. Akin, David. â€Å"Totem, Taboo, and Identity (part 1). † Anthropology 331. University of Michigan.Ann Arbor, 11 March 2013. Akin, David.  "Marriage as Exchange. † Anthropology 331. University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, 20 February 2013. Fong, Vanessa L. â€Å"China's One-Child Policy and the Empowerment of Urban Daughters. †Ã‚  American Anthropologist  104. 4 (2002): 1098-109. Print. Jiang, Lin. â€Å"Changing Kinship Structure and Its Implications for Old-Age Support in Urban and Rural China. †Ã‚  Population Studies  49. 1 (1995): 127-45. Print. Jones, William C. The Great Qing Code. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994 Hesketh, Therese, Li Lu, and Zhu Wei Xing. The Effect of China's One-Child Family Policy after 25 Years. †Ã‚  New England Journal of Medicine  353. 11 (2005): 1171-176. Print. Wolf, Arthur P. , and Chieh-shan Huang. Marriage and Adoption in China: 1845-1945. Stanford: Stanford UP, 1980. Print. Additional Research Hinton, William. Fanshen; a Documentary of Revolution in a Chinese Village. New York: Monthly Review, 1967. Print. Zarrow, Peter Gue. After Empire: The Conceptual Transformation of the Chinese State, 1885-1924. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 2012. Print.

Human Resource Management and Employees Essay

After an organization’s structural design is in place, it needs people with the right skills, knowledge, and abilities to fill in that structure. People are an organization’s most important resource, because people either create or undermine an organization’s reputation for quality in both products and service. In addition, an organization must respond to change effectively in order to remain competitive. The right staff can carry an organization through a period of change and ensure its future success. Because of the importance of hiring and maintaining a committed and competent staff, effective human resource management is crucial to the success of all organizations. Human resource management (HRM), or staffing, is the management function devoted to acquiring, training, appraising, and compensating employees. In effect, all managers are human resource managers, although human resource specialists may perform some of these activities in large organizations. Solid HRM practices can mold a company’s workforce into a motivated and committed team capable of managing change effectively and achieving the organizational objectives. Understanding the fundamentals of HRM can help any manager lead more effectively. Every manager should understand the following three principles: All managers are human resource managers. Employees are much more important assets than buildings or equipment; good employees give a company the competitive edge. Human resource management is a matching process; it must match the needs of the organization with the needs of the employee. HR Management: Laws and Regulations Laws and regulations at the federal, state, and local levels regulate how companies conduct staffing. Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act banned most discriminatory hiring practices. Three sensitive areas of legal concern that managers must comply with are equal opportunity, affirmative action, and sexual harassment, described in the following sections. These areas, as well as other laws, impact all human resource practices. Equal Employment Opportunity Individuals covered under Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) laws are protected from illegal discrimination, which occurs when people who share a certain characteristic, such as race, age, or gender, are discriminated against because of that characteristic. People who have the designated characteristics are called the protected class. Federal laws have identified the following characteristics for protection: Race, ethnic origin, color (for example, African American, Hispanic, Native American, Asian) Gender (women, including those who are pregnant) Age (individuals over 40) Individuals with disabilities (physical and mental) Military experience (Vietnam-era veterans) Religion (special beliefs and practices) The main purpose of the EEO laws is to ensure that everyone has an equal opportunity of getting a job or being promoted at work. Affirmative action While EEO laws aim to ensure equal treatment at work, affirmative action requires the employer to make an extra effort to hire and promote people who belong to a protected group. Affirmative action includes taking specific actions designed to eliminate the present effects of past discriminations. Employees are also protected by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which was established through the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Title VII. The scope of authority of the EEOC has been expanded so that today it carries the major enforcement authority for the following laws: Civil Rights Act of 1964. Prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, or sex. Civil Rights Act of 1991. Reaffirms and tightens prohibition of discrimination. Permits individuals to sue for punitive damages in cases of intentional discrimination and shifts the burden of proof to the employer. Equal Pay Act of 1963. Prohibits pay differences based on sex for equal work. Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978. Prohibits discrimination or dismissal of women because of pregnancy alone, and protects job security during maternity leaves. American with Disabilities Act. Prohibits discrimination against individuals with physical or mental disabilities or the chronically ill, and requires that â€Å"reasonable accommodations† be provided for the disabled. Vocational Rehabilitation Act. Prohibits discrimination on the basis of physical or mental disabilities and requires that employees be informed about affirmative action plans. Most employers in the United States must comply with the provisions of Title VII. Compliance is required from all private employers of 15 or more persons, all educational institutions, state and local governments, public and private employment agencies, labor unions with 15 or more members, and joint (labor-management) committees for apprenticeship and training. Sexual harassment Few workplace topics have received more attention in recent years than that of sexual harassment. Since professor Anita Hill confronted Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas on national television over a decade ago, the number of sexual harassment claims filed annually in the United States has more than doubled. Since 1980, U. S. courts generally have used guidelines from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to define sexual harassment. Sexual harassment is defined as â€Å"unwelcome sexual advances for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. † Sexual harassment may include sexually suggestive remarks, unwanted touching, sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal and physical conduct of a sexual nature In a 1993 ruling, the Supreme Court widened the test for sexual harassment under the civil rights law to whether comments or behavior in a work environment â€Å"would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived as hostile or abusive. † As a result, employees don’t need to demonstrate that they have been psychologically damaged to prove sexual harassment in the workplace; they simply must prove that they are working in a hostile or abusive environment. Sexual harassment is not just a woman’s problem. Recently, a decision handed down by the U. S. Supreme Court broadened the definition of sexual harassment to include same-sex harassment as well as harassment of males by female coworkers. In the suit that prompted the Court’s decision, a male oil-rig worker claimed he was singled out by other members of the all-male crew for crude sex play, unwanted touching, and threats. From management’s standpoint, sexual harassment is a growing concern because it intimidates employees, interferes with job performance, and exposes the organization to liability. Organizations must respond to sexual harassment complaints very quickly because employers are held responsible for sexual harassment if appropriate action is not taken. The cost of inaction can be high. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 permits victims of sexual harassment to have jury trials and to collect compensatory damages in cases where the employer acted with â€Å"malice or reckless indifference† to the individual’s rights. Employers can take the following steps to help minimize liability for sexual harassment suits: 1. Offer a sexual harassment policy statement. This statement should address where employees can report complaints, assure confidentiality, and promise that disciplinary action will be taken against sexual harassers. 2. Provide communication and training programs for supervisors and managers. These programs should emphasize that sexual harassment will not be tolerated. 3. Conduct fair, impartial investigations and base actions on objectively gathered facts. The complainant must be insulated from the kinds of behavior that prompted the complaint. Other employment laws Several other laws impact staffing practices as well. The Fair Labor Standards Act specifies the minimum wage, overtime pay rules, and child labor regulations. The Employee Polygraph Protection Act outlaws almost all uses of the polygraph machine for employment purposes. Privacy laws provide legal rights regarding who has access to information about work history and job performance for employees in certain jurisdictions. Under the Whistleblower Protection Act, some employees who publicize dangerous employer practices are entitled to legal protection. Table 1 lists additional federal laws that shape HRM practices. TABLE 1 Some Federal Laws Shaping HRM Practices Law Date Description National Labor Relations Act 1935 Requires employers to recognize a union chosen by the majority of the employees and to establish procedures governing collective bargaining. Age Discrimination in Employment Act 1967, amended in 1978 and 1986 Prohibits age discrimination against employees between 40 and 65 years of age and restricts mandatory retirement. Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970 Establishes mandatory safety and health standards in organizations. Vietnam-Era Veteran’s Readjustment Assistance Act 1974 Prohibits discrimination against disabled veterans and Vietnam-era veterans. Mandatory Retirement Act 1978 Prohibits the forced retirement of most employees before the age of 70. Immigration Reform and Control Act 1986 Prohibits employers from knowingly hiring illegal aliens and prohibits employment on the basis of national origin of citizenship. Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act 1988 Requires employees to provide 60 days’ notice before a facility closing or mass layoff. Employee Polygraph Protection Act 1988 Limits an employer’s ability to use lie detector tests. Family and Medical Leave Act 1993 Permits employees in organizations with 50 or more workers to take up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for family or medical reasons for each year. Determining Human Resource Needs Staffing is an ongoing process that begins with finding the right people through proper planning, recruiting, and selecting. But staffing doesn’t end once employees are hired; management must keep and nurture its people via training, appraising, compensating, and implementing employment decisions that determine such things as promotions, transfers, and layoffs. Human resource planning The first step in the staffing process involves human resource planning. Human resource planning begins with a job analysis in which descriptions of all jobs (tasks) and the qualifications needed for each position are developed. A job description is a written statement of what a jobholder does, how it’s done, and why it’s done. It typically portrays job content, environment, and conditions of employment. The job specification states the minimum acceptable qualifications an incumbent must possess to perform a given job successfully. It identifies the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to do the job effectively. Job analysis is then followed by a human resource inventory, which catalogs qualifications and interests. Next, a human resource forecast is developed to predict the organization’s future needs for jobs and people based on its strategic plans and normal attrition. The forecast is then compared to the inventory to determine whether the organization’s staffing needs will be met with existing personnel or whether managers will have to recruit new employees or terminate existing ones. Recruiting strategies Recruitment includes all the activities an organization may use to attract a pool of viable candidates. Effective recruiting is increasingly important today for several reasons: The U. S. employment rate has generally declined each year through the 1990s. Experts refer to the current recruiting situation as one of â€Å"evaporated employee resources. † Many experts believe that today’s Generation X employees (those born between 1963 and 1981) are less inclined to build long-term employment relationships than were their predecessors. Therefore, finding the right inducements for attracting, hiring, and retaining qualified personnel may be more complicated than in previous years. Keep in mind that recruiting strategies differ among organizations. Although one may instantly think of campus recruiting as a typical recruiting activity, many organizations use internal recruiting, or promote-from-within policies, to fill their high-level positions. Open positions are posted, and current employees are given preferences when these positions become available. Internal recruitment is less costly than an external search. It also generates higher employee commitment, development, and satisfaction because it offers opportunities for career advancement to employees rather than outsiders. If internal sources do not produce an acceptable candidate, many external recruiting strategies are available, including the following: Newspaper advertising Employment agencies (private, public, or temporary agencies) Executive recruiters (sometimes called headhunters) Unions Employee referrals Internship programs Internet employment sites But there’s more to recruiting than just attracting employees; managers need to be able to weed out the top candidates. Once a manger has a pool of applicants, the selection process can begin. Selecting the Best Person for the Job Having the right people on staff is crucial to the success of an organization. Various selection devices help employers predict which applicants will be successful if hired. These devices aim to be not only valid, but also reliable. Validity is proof that the relationship between the selection device and some relevant job criterion exists. Reliability is an indicator that the device measures the same thing consistently. For example, it would be appropriate to give a keyboarding test to a candidate applying for a job as an administrative assistant. However, it would not be valid to give a keyboarding test to a candidate for a job as a physical education teacher. If a keyboarding test is given to the same individual on two separate occasions, the results should be similar. To be effective predictors, a selection device must possess an acceptable level of consistency. Application forms For most employers, the application form is the first step in the selection process. Application forms provide a record of salient information about applicants for positions, and also furnish data for personnel research. Interviewers may use responses from the application for follow-up questions during an interview. These forms range from requests for basic information, such as names, addresses, and telephone numbers, to comprehensive personal history profiles detailing applicants’ education, job experience skills, and accomplishments. According to the Uniform Selection Guidelines of the EEOC, which establish standards that employers must meet to prevent disparate or unequal treatment, any employment requirement is a test, even a job application. As a result, EEOC considerations and application forms are interrelated, and managers should make sure that their application forms do not ask questions that are irrelevant to job success, or these questions may create an adverse impact on protected groups. For example, employers should not ask whether an applicant rents or owns his or her own home, because an applicant’s response may adversely affect his or her chances at the job. Minorities and women may be less likely to own a home, and home ownership is probably unrelated to job performance. On the other hand, asking about the CPA exam for an accounting position is appropriate, even if only one-half of all female or minority applicants have taken the exam versus nine-tenths of male applicants. A quick test for disparate impact suggested by the Uniform Selection Guidelines is the four-fifths rules. Generally, a disparate impact is assumed when the proportions of protected class applicants who are actually hired is less that 80 percent (four-fifths) of the proportion of the majority group applicants selected. For example, assume that an employer has 100 white male applicants for an entry-level job and hires one-half of them, for a selection ratio of 1:2, or 50 percent (50/100). The four-fifths rule does not mean that the employers must hire four-fifths, or 40 protected class members. Instead, the rule means that the employer’s selection ratio of protected class-applicants should be at least four-fifths of that of the majority groups. Testing Testing is another method of selecting competent future employees. Although testing use has ebbed and flowed during the past two decades, recent studies reveal that more than 80 percent of employers use testing as part of their selection process. Again, these tests must be valid and reliable, or serious EEO questions may be raised about the use of them. As a result, a manager needs to make sure that the test measures only job-relevant dimensions of applicants. Most tests focus on specific job-related aptitudes and skills, such as math or motor skills. Typical types of exams include the following: Integrity tests measure factors such as dependability, carefulness, responsibility, and honesty. These tests are used to learn about the attitudes of applicants toward a variety of job-related subjects. Since the passage of the Employee Polygraph Protection Act in 1988, polygraph (lie detector) tests have been effectively banned in employment situations. In their place, attitude tests are being used to assess attitudes about honesty and, presumably, on-the-job behaviors. Personality tests measure personality or temperament. These tests are among the least reliable. Personality tests are problematic and not very valid, because little or no relationship exists between personality and performance. Knowledge tests are more reliable than personality tests because they measure an applicant’s comprehension or knowledge of a subject. A math test for an accountant and a weather test for a pilot are examples. Human relations specialists must be able to demonstrate that the test reflects the knowledge needed to perform the job. For example, a teacher hired to teach math should not be given a keyboarding test. Performance simulation tests are increasing in popularity. Based on job analysis data, they more easily meet the requirement of job relatedness than written tests. Performance simulation tests are made up of actual job behaviors. The best-known performance simulation test is known as work sampling, and other credible simulation processes are performed at assessment centers. An assessment is a selection technique that examines candidates’ handling of simulated job situations and evaluates a candidate’s potential by observing his or her performance in experiential activities designed to simulate daily work. Assessment centers, where work sampling is often completed, utilize line executives, supervisors, or trained psychologists to evaluate candidates as they go through exercises that simulate real problems that these candidates would confront on their jobs. Activities may include interviews, problem-solving exercises, group discussions, and business-decision games. Assessment centers have consistently demonstrated results that accurately predict later job performance in managerial positions. Work sampling is an effort to create a miniature replica of a job, giving applicants the chance to demonstrate that they possess the necessary talents by actually doing the tasks. Interviews Another widely used selection technique is the interview, a formal, in-depth conversation conducted to evaluate an applicant’s acceptability. In general, the interviewer seeks to answer three broad questions: 1. Can the applicant do the job? 2. Will the applicant do the job? 3. How does the applicant compare with others who are being considered for the job? Interviews are popular because of their flexibility. They can be adapted to unskilled, skilled, managerial, and staff employees. They also allow a two-way exchange of information where interviewers can learn about the applicant and the applicant can learn about the employer. Interviews do have some shortcomings, however. The most noticeable flaws are in the areas of reliability and validity. Good reliability means that the interpretation of the interview results does not vary from interviewer to interviewer. Reliability is improved when identical questions are asked. The validity of interviews is often questionable because few departments use standardized questions. Managers can boost the reliability and validity of selection interviews by planning the interviews, establishing rapport, closing the interview with time for questions, and reviewing the interview as soon as possible after its conclusion. Other selection techniques Reference checking and health exams are two other important selection techniques that help in the staffing decision. Reference checking allows employers to verify information supplied by the candidate. However, obtaining information about potential candidates is often difficult because of privacy laws and employer concerns about defamation lawsuits. Health exams identify health problems that increase absenteeism and accidents, as well as detecting diseases that may be unknown to the applicant. Orientation and Training Programs Once employees are selected, they must be prepared to do their jobs, which is when orientation and training come in. Orientation means providing new employees with basic information about the employer. Training programs are used to ensure that the new employee has the basic knowledge required to perform the job satisfactorily. Orientation and training programs are important components in the processes of developing a committed and flexible high-potential workforce and socializing new employees. In addition, these programs can save employers money, providing big returns to an organization, because an organization that invests money to train its employees results in both the employees and the organization enjoying the dividends. Unfortunately, orientation and training programs are often overlooked. A recent U. S. study, for example, found that 57 percent of employers reported that although employees’ skill requirements had increased over a three-year period, only 20 percent of employees were fully proficient in their jobs. Orientation Orientation programs not only improve the rate at which employees are able to perform their jobs but also help employees satisfy their personal desires to feel they are part of the organization’s social fabric. The HR department generally orients newcomers to broad organizational issues and fringe benefits. Supervisors complete the orientation process by introducing new employees to coworkers and others involved in the job. A buddy or mentor may be assigned to continue the process. Training needs Simply hiring and placing employees in jobs does not ensure their success. In fact, even tenured employees may need training, because of changes in the business environment. Here are some changes that may signal that current employees need training: Introduction of new equipment or processes A change in the employee’s job responsibilities A drop in an employee’s productivity or in the quality of output An increase in safety violations or accidents An increased number of questions Complaints by customers or coworkers Once managers decide that their employees need training, these managers need to develop clear training goals that outline anticipated results. These managers must also be able to clearly communicate these goals to employees. Keep in mind that training is only one response to a performance problem. If the problem is lack of motivation, a poorly designed job, or an external condition (such as a family problem), training is not likely to offer much help. Types of training After specific training goals have been established, training sessions should be scheduled to provide the employee an opportunity to meet his or her goals. The following are typical training programs provided by employers: Basic literacy training. Ninety million American adults have limited literacy skills, and about 40 million can read little or not at all. Because most workplace demands require a tenth- or eleventh-grade reading level (and about 20 percent of Americans between the ages of 21 and 25 can’t read at even an eighth-grade level), organizations increasingly need to provide basic literacy training in the areas of reading and math skills to their employees. Technical training. New technology and structural designs have increased the need to upgrade and improve employees’ technical skills in both white-collar and blue-collar jobs. Interpersonal skills training. Most employees belong to a work team, and their work performance depends on their abilities to effectively interact with their coworkers. Interpersonal skills training helps employees build communication skills. Problem-solving training. Today’s employees often work as members of self-managed teams who are responsible for solving their own problems. Problem-solving training has become a basic part of almost every organizational effort to introduce self-managed teams or implement Total Quality Management (TQM). Diversity training. As one of the fastest growing areas of training, diversity training increases awareness and builds cultural sensitivity skills. Awareness training tries to create an understanding of the need for, and meaning of, managing and valuing diversity. Skill-building training educates employees about specific cultural differences in the workplace. Training methods Most training takes place on the job due to the simplicity and lower cost of on-the-job training methods. Two popular types of on-the-job training include the following: Job rotation. By assigning people to different jobs or tasks to different people on a temporary basis, employers can add variety and expose people to the dependence that one job has on others. Job rotation can help stimulate people to higher levels of contributions, renew people’s interest and enthusiasm, and encourage them to work more as a team. Mentoring programs. A new employee frequently learns his or her job under the guidance of a seasoned veteran. In the trades, this type of training is usually called an apprenticeship. In white-collar jobs, it is called a coaching or mentoring relationship. In each, the new employee works under the observation of an experienced worker. Sometimes, training goals cannot be met through on-the-job training; the employer needs to look to other resources. Off-the-job training can rely on outside consultants, local college faculty, or in-house personnel. The more popular off-the-job training methods are classroom lectures, videos, and simulation exercises. Thanks to new technologies, employers can now facilitate some training, such as tutorials, on the employees’ own computers, reducing the overall costs. Regardless of the method selected, effective training should be individualized. Some people absorb information better when they read about it, others learn best by observation, and still others learn better when they hear the information. These different learning styles are not mutually exclusive. When training is designed around the preferred learning style of an employee, the benefits of training are maximized because employees are able to retain more of what they learn. In addition to training, employers should offer development plans, which include a series of steps that can help employees acquire skills to reach long-term goals, such as a job promotion. Training, on the other hand, is immediate and specific to a current job. Evaluating Employee Performance Employee performance should be evaluated regularly. Employees want feedback—they want to know what their supervisors think about their work. Regular performance evaluations not only provide feedback to employees, but also provide employees with an opportunity to correct deficiencies. Evaluations or reviews also help in making key personnel decisions, such as the following: Justifying promotions, transfers, and terminations Identifying training needs Providing feedback to employees on their performance Determining necessary pay adjustments Most organizations utilize employee evaluation systems; one such system is known as a performance appraisal. A performance appraisal is a formal, structured system designed to measure the actual job performance of an employee against designated performance standards. Although performance appraisals systems vary by organizations, all employee evaluations should have the following three components: Specific, job-related criteria against which performance can be compared A rating scale that lets employees know how well they’re meeting the criteria Objective methods, forms, and procedures to determine the rating Traditionally, an employee’s immediate boss conducts his or her performance appraisal. However, some organizations use other devices, such as peer evaluations, self-appraisals, and even customer evaluations, for conducting this important task. The latest approach to performance evaluation is the use of 360-degree feedback. The 360-degree feedback appraisal provides performance feedback from the full circle of daily contacts that an employee may have. This method of performance appraisal fits well into organizations that have introduced teams, employee involvement, and TQM programs. Making Employment Decisions Employment decisions go beyond determining which employees are due for raises. Through regular, objective performance appraisals, managers acquire information to make and implement decisions about promotions, transfers, demotions, separations, and compensation. In most organizations, outstanding employees are recognized for their hard work and outstanding performances, and offered promotions. A promotion generally means rewarding an employee’s efforts by moving that person to a job with increased authority and responsibility. Downsizing has led many firms to rely on lateral moves or transfers instead of promoting employees. A lateral move can act as an opportunity for future vertical advancement because it can broaden an employee’s experiences and add skills. On the other hand, sometimes employees’ performances signal that they aren’t adapting well to their jobs and may need fewer responsibilities. One option is a demotion, or reassignment to a lower rank or less prestigious position. Demotions are not a popular technique because of the stigma attached to this move. A misconception is that demotions should be used as punishment for ineffective performance. The departure of an employee from an organization is referred to as separation. Separation may be voluntary or involuntary. Resignations and retirements are voluntary separations. Involuntary separations are layoffs and/or firings. Lately, the rash of downsizing throughout the United States has resulted in many layoffs. Sometimes, however, an employee must be terminated because of poor performance. Dismissal or firing of employees should occur only on the basis of just cause and only after all reasonable steps to rehabilitate the employee have failed. In some cases, such as gross insubordination or theft, immediate dismissal is required. Compensating Employees Employee compensation refers to all work-related payments, including wages, commissions, insurance, and time off. Wages and salaries are the most obvious forms of compensation and are based on job evaluations that determine the relative values of jobs to the organization. Under the hourly wage system, employees are paid a fixed amount for each hour they work. The system is generally used for lower skilled occupations. Salaried employees receive a fixed sum per week or month, no matter how many hours they work. Most professional positions are salaried; the reality is that these jobholders typically work in excess of a â€Å"minimum† 40-hour workweek. Some occupations are compensated through incentive pay programs. Salespeople typically receive commissions based upon the quantities of goods they sell. Some sales compensation plans contain elements of both a salary and commission. A production worker’s pay may be based upon some combination of an hourly wage and an incentive for each â€Å"piece† he or she makes. Some employees are offered merit awards as a reward for sustained superior performance. Employee benefits are supplements to wages or pay. Some benefits, such as unemployment and worker’s compensation, are legally mandated. Other benefits are optional and help build employee loyalty to an organization, including the following: Health insurance Pension plans E